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| <h1 id="code-generation"><a class="header" href="#code-generation">Code generation</a></h1> |
| <p>Code generation (or “codegen”) is the part of the compiler |
| that actually generates an executable binary. |
| Usually, rustc uses LLVM for code generation, |
| but there is also support for <a href="https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasmtime/tree/main/cranelift">Cranelift</a> and <a href="https://github.com/rust-lang/rustc_codegen_gcc">GCC</a>. |
| The key is that rustc doesn’t implement codegen itself. |
| It’s worth noting, though, that in the Rust source code, |
| many parts of the backend have <code>codegen</code> in their names |
| (there are no hard boundaries).</p> |
| <blockquote> |
| <p>NOTE: If you are looking for hints on how to debug code generation bugs, |
| please see <a href="./debugging.html">this section of the debugging chapter</a>.</p> |
| </blockquote> |
| <h2 id="what-is-llvm"><a class="header" href="#what-is-llvm">What is LLVM?</a></h2> |
| <p><a href="https://llvm.org">LLVM</a> is “a collection of modular and reusable compiler and |
| toolchain technologies”. In particular, the LLVM project contains a pluggable |
| compiler backend (also called “LLVM”), which is used by many compiler projects, |
| including the <code>clang</code> C compiler and our beloved <code>rustc</code>.</p> |
| <p>LLVM takes input in the form of LLVM IR. It is basically assembly code with |
| additional low-level types and annotations added. These annotations are helpful |
| for doing optimizations on the LLVM IR and outputted machine code. The end |
| result of all this is (at long last) something executable (e.g. an ELF object, |
| an EXE, or wasm).</p> |
| <p>There are a few benefits to using LLVM:</p> |
| <ul> |
| <li>We don’t have to write a whole compiler backend. This reduces implementation |
| and maintenance burden.</li> |
| <li>We benefit from the large suite of advanced optimizations that the LLVM |
| project has been collecting.</li> |
| <li>We can automatically compile Rust to any of the platforms for which LLVM has |
| support. For example, as soon as LLVM added support for wasm, voila! rustc, |
| clang, and a bunch of other languages were able to compile to wasm! (Well, |
| there was some extra stuff to be done, but we were 90% there anyway).</li> |
| <li>We and other compiler projects benefit from each other. For example, when the |
| <a href="https://meltdownattack.com/">Spectre and Meltdown security vulnerabilities</a> were discovered, |
| only LLVM needed to be patched.</li> |
| </ul> |
| <h2 id="running-llvm-linking-and-metadata-generation"><a class="header" href="#running-llvm-linking-and-metadata-generation">Running LLVM, linking, and metadata generation</a></h2> |
| <p>Once LLVM IR for all of the functions and statics, etc is built, it is time to |
| start running LLVM and its optimization passes. LLVM IR is grouped into |
| “modules”. Multiple “modules” can be codegened at the same time to aid in |
| multi-core utilization. These “modules” are what we refer to as <em>codegen |
| units</em>. These units were established way back during monomorphization |
| collection phase.</p> |
| <p>Once LLVM produces objects from these modules, these objects are passed to the |
| linker along with, optionally, the metadata object and an archive or an |
| executable is produced.</p> |
| <p>It is not necessarily the codegen phase described above that runs the |
| optimizations. With certain kinds of LTO, the optimization might happen at the |
| linking time instead. It is also possible for some optimizations to happen |
| before objects are passed on to the linker and some to happen during the |
| linking.</p> |
| <p>This all happens towards the very end of compilation. The code for this can be |
| found in <a href="https://doc.rust-lang.org/nightly/nightly-rustc/rustc_codegen_ssa/back/index.html"><code>rustc_codegen_ssa::back</code></a> and |
| <a href="https://doc.rust-lang.org/nightly/nightly-rustc/rustc_codegen_llvm/back/index.html"><code>rustc_codegen_llvm::back</code></a>. Sadly, this piece of code is not |
| really well-separated into LLVM-dependent code; the <a href="https://doc.rust-lang.org/nightly/nightly-rustc/rustc_codegen_ssa/index.html"><code>rustc_codegen_ssa</code></a> |
| contains a fair amount of code specific to the LLVM backend.</p> |
| <p>Once these components are done with their work you end up with a number of |
| files in your filesystem corresponding to the outputs you have requested.</p> |
| |
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