As you write large programs, organizing your code will become increasingly important. By grouping related functionality and separating code with distinct features, you’ll clarify where to find code that implements a particular feature and where to go to change how a feature works.
The programs we’ve written so far have been in one module in one file. As a project grows, you should organize code by splitting it into multiple modules and then multiple files. A package can contain multiple binary crates and optionally one library crate. As a package grows, you can extract parts into separate crates that become external dependencies. This chapter covers all these techniques. For very large projects comprising a set of interrelated packages that evolve together, Cargo provides workspaces, which we’ll cover in “Cargo Workspaces” in Chapter 14.
We’ll also discuss encapsulating implementation details, which lets you reuse code at a higher level: once you’ve implemented an operation, other code can call your code via its public interface without having to know how the implementation works. The way you write code defines which parts are public for other code to use and which parts are private implementation details that you reserve the right to change. This is another way to limit the amount of detail you have to keep in your head.
A related concept is scope: the nested context in which code is written has a set of names that are defined as “in scope.” When reading, writing, and compiling code, programmers and compilers need to know whether a particular name at a particular spot refers to a variable, function, struct, enum, module, constant, or other item and what that item means. You can create scopes and change which names are in or out of scope. You can’t have two items with the same name in the same scope; tools are available to resolve name conflicts.
Rust has a number of features that allow you to manage your code’s organization, including which details are exposed, which details are private, and what names are in each scope in your programs. These features, sometimes collectively referred to as the module system, include:
In this chapter, we’ll cover all these features, discuss how they interact, and explain how to use them to manage scope. By the end, you should have a solid understanding of the module system and be able to work with scopes like a pro!
The first parts of the module system we’ll cover are packages and crates.
A crate is the smallest amount of code that the Rust compiler considers at a time. Even if you run rustc rather than cargo and pass a single source code file (as we did all the way back in “Writing and Running a Rust Program” in Chapter 1), the compiler considers that file to be a crate. Crates can contain modules, and the modules may be defined in other files that get compiled with the crate, as we’ll see in the coming sections.
A crate can come in one of two forms: a binary crate or a library crate. Binary crates are programs you can compile to an executable that you can run, such as a command line program or a server. Each must have a function called main that defines what happens when the executable runs. All the crates we’ve created so far have been binary crates.
Library crates don’t have a main function, and they don’t compile to an executable. Instead, they define functionality intended to be shared with multiple projects. For example, the rand crate we used in Chapter 2 provides functionality that generates random numbers. Most of the time when Rustaceans say “crate”, they mean library crate, and they use “crate” interchangeably with the general programming concept of a “library”.
The crate root is a source file that the Rust compiler starts from and makes up the root module of your crate (we’ll explain modules in depth in “Defining Modules to Control Scope and Privacy”).
A package is a bundle of one or more crates that provides a set of functionality. A package contains a Cargo.toml file that describes how to build those crates. Cargo is actually a package that contains the binary crate for the command line tool you’ve been using to build your code. The Cargo package also contains a library crate that the binary crate depends on. Other projects can depend on the Cargo library crate to use the same logic the Cargo command line tool uses. A package can contain as many binary crates as you like, but at most only one library crate. A package must contain at least one crate, whether that’s a library or binary crate.
Let’s walk through what happens when we create a package. First we enter the command cargo new my-project:
$ cargo new my-project
Created binary (application) `my-project` package
$ ls my-project
Cargo.toml
src
$ ls my-project/src
main.rs
After we run cargo new my-project, we use ls to see what Cargo creates. In the project directory, there’s a Cargo.toml file, giving us a package. There’s also a src directory that contains main.rs. Open Cargo.toml in your text editor, and note there’s no mention of src/main.rs. Cargo follows a convention that src/main.rs is the crate root of a binary crate with the same name as the package. Likewise, Cargo knows that if the package directory contains src/lib.rs, the package contains a library crate with the same name as the package, and src/lib.rs is its crate root. Cargo passes the crate root files to rustc to build the library or binary.
Here, we have a package that only contains src/main.rs, meaning it only contains a binary crate named my-project. If a package contains src/main.rs and src/lib.rs, it has two crates: a binary and a library, both with the same name as the package. A package can have multiple binary crates by placing files in the src/bin directory: each file will be a separate binary crate.
In this section, we’ll talk about modules and other parts of the module system, namely paths, which allow you to name items; the use keyword that brings a path into scope; and the pub keyword to make items public. We’ll also discuss the as keyword, external packages, and the glob operator.
Before we get to the details of modules and paths, here we provide a quick reference on how modules, paths, the use keyword, and the pub keyword work in the compiler, and how most developers organize their code. We’ll be going through examples of each of these rules throughout this chapter, but this is a great place to refer to as a reminder of how modules work.
mod garden;. The compiler will look for the module’s code in these places:mod gardenmod vegetables; in src/garden.rs. The compiler will look for the submodule’s code within the directory named for the parent module in these places:mod vegetables, within curly brackets instead of the semicolonAsparagus type in the garden vegetables module would be found at crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus.pub mod instead of mod. To make items within a public module public as well, use pub before their declarations.use keyword: Within a scope, the use keyword creates shortcuts to items to reduce repetition of long paths. In any scope that can refer to crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus, you can create a shortcut with use crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus; and from then on you only need to write Asparagus to make use of that type in the scope.Here, we create a binary crate named backyard that illustrates these rules. The crate’s directory, also named backyard, contains these files and directories:
backyard
├── Cargo.lock
├── Cargo.toml
└── src
├── garden
│ └── vegetables.rs
├── garden.rs
└── main.rs
The crate root file in this case is src/main.rs, and it contains:
src/main.rs
use crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus;
pub mod garden;
fn main() {
let plant = Asparagus {};
println!("I'm growing {plant:?}!");
}
The pub mod garden; line tells the compiler to include the code it finds in src/garden.rs, which is:
src/garden.rs
pub mod vegetables;
Here, pub mod vegetables; means the code in src/garden/vegetables.rs is included too. That code is:
#[derive(Debug)]
pub struct Asparagus {}
Now let’s get into the details of these rules and demonstrate them in action!
Modules let us organize code within a crate for readability and easy reuse. Modules also allow us to control the privacy of items because code within a module is private by default. Private items are internal implementation details not available for outside use. We can choose to make modules and the items within them public, which exposes them to allow external code to use and depend on them.
As an example, let’s write a library crate that provides the functionality of a restaurant. We’ll define the signatures of functions but leave their bodies empty to concentrate on the organization of the code rather than the implementation of a restaurant.
In the restaurant industry, some parts of a restaurant are referred to as front of house and others as back of house. Front of house is where customers are; this encompasses where the hosts seat customers, servers take orders and payment, and bartenders make drinks. Back of house is where the chefs and cooks work in the kitchen, dishwashers clean up, and managers do administrative work.
To structure our crate in this way, we can organize its functions into nested modules. Create a new library named restaurant by running cargo new restaurant --lib. Then enter the code in Listing 7-1 into src/lib.rs to define some modules and function signatures; this code is the front of house section.
src/lib.rs
mod front_of_house {
mod hosting {
fn add_to_waitlist() {}
fn seat_at_table() {}
}
mod serving {
fn take_order() {}
fn serve_order() {}
fn take_payment() {}
}
}
Listing 7-1: A front_of_house module containing other modules that then contain functions
We define a module with the mod keyword followed by the name of the module (in this case, front_of_house). The body of the module then goes inside curly brackets. Inside modules, we can place other modules, as in this case with the modules hosting and serving. Modules can also hold definitions for other items, such as structs, enums, constants, traits, and—as in Listing 7-1—functions.
By using modules, we can group related definitions together and name why they’re related. Programmers using this code can navigate the code based on the groups rather than having to read through all the definitions, making it easier to find the definitions relevant to them. Programmers adding new functionality to this code would know where to place the code to keep the program organized.
Earlier, we mentioned that src/main.rs and src/lib.rs are called crate roots. The reason for their name is that the contents of either of these two files form a module named crate at the root of the crate’s module structure, known as the module tree.
Listing 7-2 shows the module tree for the structure in Listing 7-1.
crate
└── front_of_house
├── hosting
│ ├── add_to_waitlist
│ └── seat_at_table
└── serving
├── take_order
├── serve_order
└── take_payment
Listing 7-2: The module tree for the code in Listing 7-1
This tree shows how some of the modules nest inside other modules; for example, hosting nests inside front_of_house. The tree also shows that some modules are siblings, meaning they’re defined in the same module; hosting and serving are siblings defined within front_of_house. If module A is contained inside module B, we say that module A is the child of module B and that module B is the parent of module A. Notice that the entire module tree is rooted under the implicit module named crate.
The module tree might remind you of the filesystem’s directory tree on your computer; this is a very apt comparison! Just like directories in a filesystem, you use modules to organize your code. And just like files in a directory, we need a way to find our modules.
To show Rust where to find an item in a module tree, we use a path in the same way we use a path when navigating a filesystem. To call a function, we need to know its path.
A path can take two forms:
crate.self, super, or an identifier in the current module.Both absolute and relative paths are followed by one or more identifiers separated by double colons (::).
Returning to Listing 7-1, say we want to call the add_to_waitlist function. This is the same as asking: what’s the path of the add_to_waitlist function? Listing 7-3 contains Listing 7-1 with some of the modules and functions removed.
We’ll show two ways to call the add_to_waitlist function from a new function, eat_at_restaurant, defined in the crate root. These paths are correct, but there’s another problem remaining that will prevent this example from compiling as is. We’ll explain why in a bit.
The eat_at_restaurant function is part of our library crate’s public API, so we mark it with the pub keyword. In the “Exposing Paths with the pub Keyword” section, we’ll go into more detail about pub.
src/lib.rs
mod front_of_house {
mod hosting {
fn add_to_waitlist() {}
}
}
pub fn eat_at_restaurant() {
// Absolute path
crate::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist();
// Relative path
front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist();
}
Listing 7-3: Calling the add_to_waitlist function using absolute and relative paths
The first time we call the add_to_waitlist function in eat_at_restaurant, we use an absolute path. The add_to_waitlist function is defined in the same crate as eat_at_restaurant, which means we can use the crate keyword to start an absolute path. We then include each of the successive modules until we make our way to add_to_waitlist. You can imagine a filesystem with the same structure: we’d specify the path /front_of_house/hosting/add_to_waitlist to run the add_to_waitlist program; using the crate name to start from the crate root is like using / to start from the filesystem root in your shell.
The second time we call add_to_waitlist in eat_at_restaurant, we use a relative path. The path starts with front_of_house, the name of the module defined at the same level of the module tree as eat_at_restaurant. Here the filesystem equivalent would be using the path front_of_house/hosting/add_to_waitlist. Starting with a module name means that the path is relative.
Choosing whether to use a relative or absolute path is a decision you’ll make based on your project, and it depends on whether you’re more likely to move item definition code separately from or together with the code that uses the item. For example, if we moved the front_of_house module and the eat_at_restaurant function into a module named customer_experience, we’d need to update the absolute path to add_to_waitlist, but the relative path would still be valid. However, if we moved the eat_at_restaurant function separately into a module named dining, the absolute path to the add_to_waitlist call would stay the same, but the relative path would need to be updated. Our preference in general is to specify absolute paths because it’s more likely we’ll want to move code definitions and item calls independently of each other.
Let’s try to compile Listing 7-3 and find out why it won’t compile yet! The errors we get are shown in Listing 7-4.
$ cargo build
Compiling restaurant v0.1.0 (file:///projects/restaurant)
error[E0603]: module `hosting` is private
--> src/lib.rs:9:28
|
9 | crate::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist();
| ^^^^^^^ --------------- function `add_to_waitlist` is not publicly re-exported
| |
| private module
|
note: the module `hosting` is defined here
--> src/lib.rs:2:5
|
2 | mod hosting {
| ^^^^^^^^^^^
error[E0603]: module `hosting` is private
--> src/lib.rs:12:21
|
12 | front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist();
| ^^^^^^^ --------------- function `add_to_waitlist` is not publicly re-exported
| |
| private module
|
note: the module `hosting` is defined here
--> src/lib.rs:2:5
|
2 | mod hosting {
| ^^^^^^^^^^^
For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0603`.
error: could not compile `restaurant` (lib) due to 2 previous errors
Listing 7-4: Compiler errors from building the code in Listing 7-3
The error messages say that module hosting is private. In other words, we have the correct paths for the hosting module and the add_to_waitlist function, but Rust won’t let us use them because it doesn’t have access to the private sections. In Rust, all items (functions, methods, structs, enums, modules, and constants) are private to parent modules by default. If you want to make an item like a function or struct private, you put it in a module.
Items in a parent module can’t use the private items inside child modules, but items in child modules can use the items in their ancestor modules. This is because child modules wrap and hide their implementation details, but the child modules can see the context in which they’re defined. To continue with our metaphor, think of the privacy rules as being like the back office of a restaurant: what goes on in there is private to restaurant customers, but office managers can see and do everything in the restaurant they operate.
Rust chose to have the module system function this way so that hiding inner implementation details is the default. That way, you know which parts of the inner code you can change without breaking outer code. However, Rust does give you the option to expose inner parts of child modules’ code to outer ancestor modules by using the pub keyword to make an item public.
Let’s return to the error in Listing 7-4 that told us the hosting module is private. We want the eat_at_restaurant function in the parent module to have access to the add_to_waitlist function in the child module, so we mark the hosting module with the pub keyword, as shown in Listing 7-5.
src/lib.rs
mod front_of_house {
pub mod hosting {
fn add_to_waitlist() {}
}
}
// -- snip --
Listing 7-5: Declaring the hosting module as pub to use it from eat_at_restaurant
Unfortunately, the code in Listing 7-5 still results in compiler errors, as shown in Listing 7-6.
$ cargo build
Compiling restaurant v0.1.0 (file:///projects/restaurant)
error[E0603]: function `add_to_waitlist` is private
--> src/lib.rs:9:37
|
9 | crate::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist();
| ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ private function
|
note: the function `add_to_waitlist` is defined here
--> src/lib.rs:3:9
|
3 | fn add_to_waitlist() {}
| ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
error[E0603]: function `add_to_waitlist` is private
--> src/lib.rs:12:30
|
12 | front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist();
| ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ private function
|
note: the function `add_to_waitlist` is defined here
--> src/lib.rs:3:9
|
3 | fn add_to_waitlist() {}
| ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0603`.
error: could not compile `restaurant` (lib) due to 2 previous errors
Listing 7-6: Compiler errors from building the code in Listing 7-5
What happened? Adding the pub keyword in front of mod hosting makes the module public. With this change, if we can access front_of_house, we can access hosting. But the contents of hosting are still private; making the module public doesn’t make its contents public. The pub keyword on a module only lets code in its ancestor modules refer to it, not access its inner code. Because modules are containers, there’s not much we can do by only making the module public; we need to go further and choose to make one or more of the items within the module public as well.
The errors in Listing 7-6 say that the add_to_waitlist function is private. The privacy rules apply to structs, enums, functions, and methods as well as modules.
Let’s also make the add_to_waitlist function public by adding the pub keyword before its definition, as in Listing 7-7.
src/lib.rs
mod front_of_house {
pub mod hosting {
pub fn add_to_waitlist() {}
}
}
// -- snip --
Listing 7-7: Adding the pub keyword to mod hosting and fn add_to_waitlist lets us call the function from eat_at_restaurant
Now the code will compile! To see why adding the pub keyword lets us use these paths in eat_at_restaurant with respect to the privacy rules, let’s look at the absolute and the relative paths.
In the absolute path, we start with crate, the root of our crate’s module tree. The front_of_house module is defined in the crate root. While front_of_house isn’t public, because the eat_at_restaurant function is defined in the same module as front_of_house (that is, eat_at_restaurant and front_of_house are siblings), we can refer to front_of_house from eat_at_restaurant. Next is the hosting module marked with pub. We can access the parent module of hosting, so we can access hosting. Finally, the add_to_waitlist function is marked with pub and we can access its parent module, so this function call works!
In the relative path, the logic is the same as the absolute path except for the first step: rather than starting from the crate root, the path starts from front_of_house. The front_of_house module is defined within the same module as eat_at_restaurant, so the relative path starting from the module in which eat_at_restaurant is defined works. Then, because hosting and add_to_waitlist are marked with pub, the rest of the path works, and this function call is valid!
If you plan on sharing your library crate so other projects can use your code, your public API is your contract with users of your crate that determines how they can interact with your code. There are many considerations around managing changes to your public API to make it easier for people to depend on your crate. These considerations are beyond the scope of this book; if you’re interested in this topic, see The Rust API Guidelines at https://rust-lang.github.io/api-guidelines/.
Best Practices for Packages with a Binary and a Library
We mentioned that a package can contain both a src/main.rs binary crate root as well as a src/lib.rs library crate root, and both crates will have the package name by default. Typically, packages with this pattern of containing both a library and a binary crate will have just enough code in the binary crate to start an executable that calls code within the library crate. This lets other projects benefit from most of the functionality that the package provides because the library crate’s code can be shared.
The module tree should be defined in src/lib.rs. Then, any public items can be used in the binary crate by starting paths with the name of the package. The binary crate becomes a user of the library crate just like a completely external crate would use the library crate: it can only use the public API. This helps you design a good API; not only are you the author, you’re also a client!
In Chapter 12, we’ll demonstrate this organizational practice with a command line program that will contain both a binary crate and a library crate.
We can construct relative paths that begin in the parent module, rather than the current module or the crate root, by using super at the start of the path. This is like starting a filesystem path with the .. syntax. Using super allows us to reference an item that we know is in the parent module, which can make rearranging the module tree easier when the module is closely related to the parent but the parent might be moved elsewhere in the module tree someday.
Consider the code in Listing 7-8 that models the situation in which a chef fixes an incorrect order and personally brings it out to the customer. The function fix_incorrect_order defined in the back_of_house module calls the function deliver_order defined in the parent module by specifying the path to deliver_order, starting with super.
src/lib.rs
fn deliver_order() {}
mod back_of_house {
fn fix_incorrect_order() {
cook_order();
super::deliver_order();
}
fn cook_order() {}
}
Listing 7-8: Calling a function using a relative path starting with super
The fix_incorrect_order function is in the back_of_house module, so we can use super to go to the parent module of back_of_house, which in this case is crate, the root. From there, we look for deliver_order and find it. Success! We think the back_of_house module and the deliver_order function are likely to stay in the same relationship to each other and get moved together should we decide to reorganize the crate’s module tree. Therefore, we used super so we’ll have fewer places to update code in the future if this code gets moved to a different module.
We can also use pub to designate structs and enums as public, but there are a few extra details to the usage of pub with structs and enums. If we use pub before a struct definition, we make the struct public, but the struct’s fields will still be private. We can make each field public or not on a case-by-case basis. In Listing 7-9, we’ve defined a public back_of_house::Breakfast struct with a public toast field but a private seasonal_fruit field. This models the case in a restaurant where the customer can pick the type of bread that comes with a meal, but the chef decides which fruit accompanies the meal based on what’s in season and in stock. The available fruit changes quickly, so customers can’t choose the fruit or even see which fruit they’ll get.
src/lib.rs
mod back_of_house {
pub struct Breakfast {
pub toast: String,
seasonal_fruit: String,
}
impl Breakfast {
pub fn summer(toast: &str) -> Breakfast {
Breakfast {
toast: String::from(toast),
seasonal_fruit: String::from("peaches"),
}
}
}
}
pub fn eat_at_restaurant() {
// Order a breakfast in the summer with Rye toast.
let mut meal = back_of_house::Breakfast::summer("Rye");
// Change our mind about what bread we'd like.
meal.toast = String::from("Wheat");
println!("I'd like {} toast please", meal.toast);
// The next line won't compile if we uncomment it; we're not allowed
// to see or modify the seasonal fruit that comes with the meal.
// meal.seasonal_fruit = String::from("blueberries");
}
Listing 7-9: A struct with some public fields and some private fields
Because the toast field in the back_of_house::Breakfast struct is public, in eat_at_restaurant we can write and read to the toast field using dot notation. Notice that we can’t use the seasonal_fruit field in eat_at_restaurant, because seasonal_fruit is private. Try uncommenting the line modifying the seasonal_fruit field value to see what error you get!
Also, note that because back_of_house::Breakfast has a private field, the struct needs to provide a public associated function that constructs an instance of Breakfast (we’ve named it summer here). If Breakfast didn’t have such a function, we couldn’t create an instance of Breakfast in eat_at_restaurant because we couldn’t set the value of the private seasonal_fruit field in eat_at_restaurant.
In contrast, if we make an enum public, all of its variants are then public. We only need the pub before the enum keyword, as shown in Listing 7-10.
src/lib.rs
mod back_of_house {
pub enum Appetizer {
Soup,
Salad,
}
}
pub fn eat_at_restaurant() {
let order1 = back_of_house::Appetizer::Soup;
let order2 = back_of_house::Appetizer::Salad;
}
Listing 7-10: Designating an enum as public makes all its variants public.
Because we made the Appetizer enum public, we can use the Soup and Salad variants in eat_at_restaurant.
Enums aren’t very useful unless their variants are public; it would be annoying to have to annotate all enum variants with pub in every case, so the default for enum variants is to be public. Structs are often useful without their fields being public, so struct fields follow the general rule of everything being private by default unless annotated with pub.
There’s one more situation involving pub that we haven’t covered, and that is our last module system feature: the use keyword. We’ll cover use by itself first, and then we’ll show how to combine pub and use.
Having to write out the paths to call functions can feel inconvenient and repetitive. In Listing 7-7, whether we chose the absolute or relative path to the add_to_waitlist function, every time we wanted to call add_to_waitlist we had to specify front_of_house and hosting too. Fortunately, there’s a way to simplify this process: we can create a shortcut to a path with the use keyword once, and then use the shorter name everywhere else in the scope.
In Listing 7-11, we bring the crate::front_of_house::hosting module into the scope of the eat_at_restaurant function so we only have to specify hosting::add_to_waitlist to call the add_to_waitlist function in eat_at_restaurant.
src/lib.rs
mod front_of_house {
pub mod hosting {
pub fn add_to_waitlist() {}
}
}
use crate::front_of_house::hosting;
pub fn eat_at_restaurant() {
hosting::add_to_waitlist();
}
Listing 7-11: Bringing a module into scope with use
Adding use and a path in a scope is similar to creating a symbolic link in the filesystem. By adding use crate::front_of_house::hosting in the crate root, hosting is now a valid name in that scope, just as though the hosting module had been defined in the crate root. Paths brought into scope with use also check privacy, like any other paths.
Note that use only creates the shortcut for the particular scope in which the use occurs. Listing 7-12 moves the eat_at_restaurant function into a new child module named customer, which is then a different scope than the use statement, so the function body won’t compile.
src/lib.rs
mod front_of_house {
pub mod hosting {
pub fn add_to_waitlist() {}
}
}
use crate::front_of_house::hosting;
mod customer {
pub fn eat_at_restaurant() {
hosting::add_to_waitlist();
}
}
Listing 7-12: A use statement only applies in the scope it’s in.
The compiler error shows that the shortcut no longer applies within the customer module:
$ cargo build Compiling restaurant v0.1.0 (file:///projects/restaurant) error[E0433]: failed to resolve: use of undeclared crate or module `hosting` --> src/lib.rs:11:9 | 11 | hosting::add_to_waitlist(); | ^^^^^^^ use of undeclared crate or module `hosting` | help: consider importing this module through its public re-export | 10 + use crate::hosting; | warning: unused import: `crate::front_of_house::hosting` --> src/lib.rs:7:5 | 7 | use crate::front_of_house::hosting; | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ | = note: `#[warn(unused_imports)]` on by default For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0433`. warning: `restaurant` (lib) generated 1 warning error: could not compile `restaurant` (lib) due to 1 previous error; 1 warning emitted
Notice there’s also a warning that the use is no longer used in its scope! To fix this problem, move the use within the customer module too, or reference the shortcut in the parent module with super::hosting within the child customer module.
In Listing 7-11, you might have wondered why we specified use crate::front_of_house::hosting and then called hosting::add_to_waitlist in eat_at_restaurant, rather than specifying the use path all the way out to the add_to_waitlist function to achieve the same result, as in Listing 7-13.
src/lib.rs
mod front_of_house {
pub mod hosting {
pub fn add_to_waitlist() {}
}
}
use crate::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist;
pub fn eat_at_restaurant() {
add_to_waitlist();
}
Listing 7-13: Bringing the add_to_waitlist function into scope with use, which is unidiomatic
Although both Listing 7-11 and Listing 7-13 accomplish the same task, Listing 7-11 is the idiomatic way to bring a function into scope with use. Bringing the function’s parent module into scope with use means we have to specify the parent module when calling the function. Specifying the parent module when calling the function makes it clear that the function isn’t locally defined while still minimizing repetition of the full path. The code in Listing 7-13 is unclear as to where add_to_waitlist is defined.
On the other hand, when bringing in structs, enums, and other items with use, it’s idiomatic to specify the full path. Listing 7-14 shows the idiomatic way to bring the standard library’s HashMap struct into the scope of a binary crate.
src/main.rs
use std::collections::HashMap;
fn main() {
let mut map = HashMap::new();
map.insert(1, 2);
}
Listing 7-14: Bringing HashMap into scope in an idiomatic way
There’s no strong reason behind this idiom: it’s just the convention that has emerged, and folks have gotten used to reading and writing Rust code this way.
The exception to this idiom is if we’re bringing two items with the same name into scope with use statements, because Rust doesn’t allow that. Listing 7-15 shows how to bring two Result types into scope that have the same name but different parent modules, and how to refer to them.
src/lib.rs
use std::fmt;
use std::io;
fn function1() -> fmt::Result {
// --snip--
}
fn function2() -> io::Result<()> {
// --snip--
}
Listing 7-15: Bringing two types with the same name into the same scope requires using their parent modules.
As you can see, using the parent modules distinguishes the two Result types. If instead we specified use std::fmt::Result and use std::io::Result, we’d have two Result types in the same scope, and Rust wouldn’t know which one we meant when we used Result.
There’s another solution to the problem of bringing two types of the same name into the same scope with use: after the path, we can specify as and a new local name, or alias, for the type. Listing 7-16 shows another way to write the code in Listing 7-15 by renaming one of the two Result types using as.
src/lib.rs
use std::fmt::Result;
use std::io::Result as IoResult;
fn function1() -> Result {
// --snip--
}
fn function2() -> IoResult<()> {
// --snip--
}
Listing 7-16: Renaming a type when it’s brought into scope with the as keyword
In the second use statement, we chose the new name IoResult for the std::io::Result type, which won’t conflict with the Result from std::fmt that we’ve also brought into scope. Listing 7-15 and Listing 7-16 are considered idiomatic, so the choice is up to you!
When we bring a name into scope with the use keyword, the name available in the new scope is private. To enable the code that calls our code to refer to that name as if it had been defined in that code’s scope, we can combine pub and use. This technique is called re-exporting because we’re bringing an item into scope but also making that item available for others to bring into their scope.
Listing 7-17 shows the code in Listing 7-11 with use in the root module changed to pub use.
src/lib.rs
mod front_of_house {
pub mod hosting {
pub fn add_to_waitlist() {}
}
}
pub use crate::front_of_house::hosting;
pub fn eat_at_restaurant() {
hosting::add_to_waitlist();
}
Listing 7-17: Making a name available for any code to use from a new scope with pub use
Before this change, external code would have to call the add_to_waitlist function by using the path restaurant::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist(), which also would have required the front_of_house module to be marked as pub. Now that this pub use has re-exported the hosting module from the root module, external code can use the path restaurant::hosting::add_to_waitlist() instead.
Re-exporting is useful when the internal structure of your code is different from how programmers calling your code would think about the domain. For example, in this restaurant metaphor, the people running the restaurant think about “front of house” and “back of house.” But customers visiting a restaurant probably won’t think about the parts of the restaurant in those terms. With pub use, we can write our code with one structure but expose a different structure. Doing so makes our library well organized for programmers working on the library and programmers calling the library. We’ll look at another example of pub use and how it affects your crate’s documentation in “Exporting a Convenient Public API with pub use” in Chapter 14.
In Chapter 2, we programmed a guessing game project that used an external package called rand to get random numbers. To use rand in our project, we added this line to Cargo.toml:
Cargo.toml
rand = "0.8.5"
Adding rand as a dependency in Cargo.toml tells Cargo to download the rand package and any dependencies from crates.io at https://crates.io/ and make rand available to our project.
Then, to bring rand definitions into the scope of our package, we added a use line starting with the name of the crate, rand, and listed the items we wanted to bring into scope. Recall that in “Generating a Random Number” in Chapter 2, we brought the Rng trait into scope and called the rand::thread_rng function:
use rand::Rng;
fn main() {
let secret_number = rand::thread_rng().gen_range(1..=100);
}
Members of the Rust community have made many packages available at crates.io at https://crates.io/, and pulling any of them into your package involves these same steps: listing them in your package’s Cargo.toml file and using use to bring items from their crates into scope.
Note that the standard std library is also a crate that’s external to our package. Because the standard library is shipped with the Rust language, we don’t need to change Cargo.toml to include std. But we do need to refer to it with use to bring items from there into our package’s scope. For example, with HashMap we would use this line:
use std::collections::HashMap;
This is an absolute path starting with std, the name of the standard library crate.
If we’re using multiple items defined in the same crate or same module, listing each item on its own line can take up a lot of vertical space in our files. For example, these two use statements we had in the guessing game in Listing 2-4 bring items from std into scope:
src/main.rs
// --snip-- use std::cmp::Ordering; use std::io; // --snip--
Instead, we can use nested paths to bring the same items into scope in one line. We do this by specifying the common part of the path, followed by two colons, and then curly brackets around a list of the parts of the paths that differ, as shown in Listing 7-18.
src/main.rs
// --snip--
use std::{cmp::Ordering, io};
// --snip--
Listing 7-18: Specifying a nested path to bring multiple items with the same prefix into scope
In bigger programs, bringing many items into scope from the same crate or module using nested paths can reduce the number of separate use statements needed by a lot!
We can use a nested path at any level in a path, which is useful when combining two use statements that share a subpath. For example, Listing 7-19 shows two use statements: one that brings std::io into scope and one that brings std::io::Write into scope.
src/lib.rs
use std::io; use std::io::Write;
Listing 7-19: Two use statements where one is a subpath of the other
The common part of these two paths is std::io, and that’s the complete first path. To merge these two paths into one use statement, we can use self in the nested path, as shown in Listing 7-20.
src/lib.rs
use std::io::{self, Write};
Listing 7-20: Combining the paths in Listing 7-19 into one use statement
This line brings std::io and std::io::Write into scope.
If we want to bring all public items defined in a path into scope, we can specify that path followed by the * glob operator:
use std::collections::*;
This use statement brings all public items defined in std::collections into the current scope. Be careful when using the glob operator! Glob can make it harder to tell what names are in scope and where a name used in your program was defined.
The glob operator is often used when testing to bring everything under test into the tests module; we’ll talk about that in “How to Write Tests” in Chapter 11. The glob operator is also sometimes used as part of the prelude pattern: see the standard library documentation for more information on that pattern.
So far, all the examples in this chapter defined multiple modules in one file. When modules get large, you might want to move their definitions to a separate file to make the code easier to navigate.
For example, let’s start from the code in Listing 7-17 that had multiple restaurant modules. We’ll extract modules into files instead of having all the modules defined in the crate root file. In this case, the crate root file is src/lib.rs, but this procedure also works with binary crates whose crate root file is src/main.rs.
First we’ll extract the front_of_house module to its own file. Remove the code inside the curly brackets for the front_of_house module, leaving only the mod front_of_house; declaration, so that src/lib.rs contains the code shown in Listing 7-21. Note that this won’t compile until we create the src/front_of_house.rs file in Listing 7-22.
src/lib.rs
mod front_of_house;
pub use crate::front_of_house::hosting;
pub fn eat_at_restaurant() {
hosting::add_to_waitlist();
}
Listing 7-21: Declaring the front_of_house module whose body will be in src/front_of_house.rs
Next, place the code that was in the curly brackets into a new file named src/front_of_house.rs, as shown in Listing 7-22. The compiler knows to look in this file because it came across the module declaration in the crate root with the name front_of_house.
src/front_of_house.rs
pub mod hosting {
pub fn add_to_waitlist() {}
}
Listing 7-22: Definitions inside the front_of_house module in src/front_of_house.rs
Note that you only need to load a file using a mod declaration once in your module tree. Once the compiler knows the file is part of the project (and knows where in the module tree the code resides because of where you’ve put the mod statement), other files in your project should refer to the loaded file’s code using a path to where it was declared, as covered in the “Paths for Referring to an Item in the Module Tree” section. In other words, mod is not an “include” operation that you may have seen in other programming languages.
Next, we’ll extract the hosting module to its own file. The process is a bit different because hosting is a child module of front_of_house, not of the root module. We’ll place the file for hosting in a new directory that will be named for its ancestors in the module tree, in this case src/front_of_house.
To start moving hosting, we change src/front_of_house.rs to contain only the declaration of the hosting module:
src/front_of_house.rs
pub mod hosting;
Then we create a src/front_of_house directory and a hosting.rs file to contain the definitions made in the hosting module:
src/front_of_house/hosting.rs
pub fn add_to_waitlist() {}
If we instead put hosting.rs in the src directory, the compiler would expect the hosting.rs code to be in a hosting module declared in the crate root, and not declared as a child of the front_of_house module. The compiler’s rules for which files to check for which modules’ code mean the directories and files more closely match the module tree.
Alternate File Paths
So far we’ve covered the most idiomatic file paths the Rust compiler uses, but Rust also supports an older style of file path. For a module named
front_of_housedeclared in the crate root, the compiler will look for the module’s code in:
- src/front_of_house.rs (what we covered)
- src/front_of_house/mod.rs (older style, still supported path)
For a module named
hostingthat is a submodule offront_of_house, the compiler will look for the module’s code in:
- src/front_of_house/hosting.rs (what we covered)
- src/front_of_house/hosting/mod.rs (older style, still supported path)
If you use both styles for the same module, you’ll get a compiler error. Using a mix of both styles for different modules in the same project is allowed, but might be confusing for people navigating your project.
The main downside to the style that uses files named mod.rs is that your project can end up with many files named mod.rs, which can get confusing when you have them open in your editor at the same time.
We’ve moved each module’s code to a separate file, and the module tree remains the same. The function calls in eat_at_restaurant will work without any modification, even though the definitions live in different files. This technique lets you move modules to new files as they grow in size.
Note that the pub use crate::front_of_house::hosting statement in src/lib.rs also hasn’t changed, nor does use have any impact on what files are compiled as part of the crate. The mod keyword declares modules, and Rust looks in a file with the same name as the module for the code that goes into that module.
Rust lets you split a package into multiple crates and a crate into modules so you can refer to items defined in one module from another module. You can do this by specifying absolute or relative paths. These paths can be brought into scope with a use statement so you can use a shorter path for multiple uses of the item in that scope. Module code is private by default, but you can make definitions public by adding the pub keyword.
In the next chapter, we’ll look at some collection data structures in the standard library that you can use in your neatly organized code.