src/ch20-06-macros.md

## Macros

We’ve used macros like `println!` throughout this book, but we haven’t fully
explored what a macro is and how it works. The term _macro_ refers to a family
of features in Rust: _declarative_ macros with `macro_rules!` and three kinds of
_procedural_ macros:

* Custom `#[derive]` macros that specify code added with the `derive` attribute
  used on structs and enums
* Attribute-like macros that define custom attributes usable on any item
* Function-like macros that look like function calls but operate on the tokens
  specified as their argument

We’ll talk about each of these in turn, but first, let’s look at why we even
need macros when we already have functions.

### The Difference Between Macros and Functions

Fundamentally, macros are a way of writing code that writes other code, which is
known as _metaprogramming_. In Appendix C, we discuss the `derive` attribute,
which generates an implementation of various traits for you. We’ve also used the
`println!` and `vec!` macros throughout the book. All of these macros _expand_
to produce more code than the code you’ve written manually.

Metaprogramming is useful for reducing the amount of code you have to write and
maintain, which is also one of the roles of functions. However, macros have some
additional powers that functions don’t.

A function signature must declare the number and type of parameters the function
has. Macros, on the other hand, can take a variable number of parameters: we can
call `println!("hello")` with one argument or `println!("hello {}", name)` with
two arguments. Also, macros are expanded before the compiler interprets the
meaning of the code, so a macro can, for example, implement a trait on a given
type. A function can’t, because it gets called at runtime and a trait needs to
be implemented at compile time.

The downside to implementing a macro instead of a function is that macro
definitions are more complex than function definitions because you’re writing
Rust code that writes Rust code. Due to this indirection, macro definitions are
generally more difficult to read, understand, and maintain than function
definitions.

Another important difference between macros and functions is that you must
define macros or bring them into scope _before_ you call them in a file, as
opposed to functions you can define anywhere and call anywhere.

### Declarative Macros with `macro_rules!` for General Metaprogramming

The most widely used form of macros in Rust is the _declarative macro_. These
are also sometimes referred to as “macros by example,” “`macro_rules!` macros,”
or just plain “macros.” At their core, declarative macros allow you to write
something similar to a Rust `match` expression. As discussed in Chapter 6,
`match` expressions are control structures that take an expression, compare the
resulting value of the expression to patterns, and then run the code associated
with the matching pattern. Macros also compare a value to patterns that are
associated with particular code: in this situation, the value is the literal
Rust source code passed to the macro; the patterns are compared with the
structure of that source code; and the code associated with each pattern, when
matched, replaces the code passed to the macro. This all happens during
compilation.

To define a macro, you use the `macro_rules!` construct. Let’s explore how to
use `macro_rules!` by looking at how the `vec!` macro is defined. Chapter 8
covered how we can use the `vec!` macro to create a new vector with particular
values. For example, the following macro creates a new vector containing three
integers:

```rust
let v: Vec<u32> = vec![1, 2, 3];
```

We could also use the `vec!` macro to make a vector of two integers or a vector
of five string slices. We wouldn’t be able to use a function to do the same
because we wouldn’t know the number or type of values up front.

Listing 20-29 shows a slightly simplified definition of the `vec!` macro.

<Listing number="20-29" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="A simplified version of the `vec!` macro definition">

```rust,noplayground
{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-29/src/lib.rs}}
```

</Listing>

> Note: The actual definition of the `vec!` macro in the standard library
> includes code to preallocate the correct amount of memory up front. That code
> is an optimization that we don’t include here to make the example simpler.

The `#[macro_export]` annotation indicates that this macro should be made
available whenever the crate in which the macro is defined is brought into
scope. Without this annotation, the macro can’t be brought into scope.

We then start the macro definition with `macro_rules!` and the name of the macro
we’re defining _without_ the exclamation mark. The name, in this case `vec`, is
followed by curly brackets denoting the body of the macro definition.

The structure in the `vec!` body is similar to the structure of a `match`
expression. Here we have one arm with the pattern `( $( $x:expr ),* )`, followed
by `=>` and the block of code associated with this pattern. If the pattern
matches, the associated block of code will be emitted. Given that this is the
only pattern in this macro, there is only one valid way to match; any other
pattern will result in an error. More complex macros will have more than one
arm.

Valid pattern syntax in macro definitions is different than the pattern syntax
covered in Chapter 19 because macro patterns are matched against Rust code
structure rather than values. Let’s walk through what the pattern pieces in
Listing 20-29 mean; for the full macro pattern syntax, see the
[Rust Reference][ref].

First, we use a set of parentheses to encompass the whole pattern. We use a
dollar sign (`$`) to declare a variable in the macro system that will contain
the Rust code matching the pattern. The dollar sign makes it clear this is a
macro variable as opposed to a regular Rust variable. Next comes a set of
parentheses that captures values that match the pattern within the parentheses
for use in the replacement code. Within `$()` is `$x:expr`, which matches any
Rust expression and gives the expression the name `$x`.

The comma following `$()` indicates that a literal comma separator character
could optionally appear after the code that matches the code in `$()`. The `*`
specifies that the pattern matches zero or more of whatever precedes the `*`.

When we call this macro with `vec![1, 2, 3];`, the `$x` pattern matches three
times with the three expressions `1`, `2`, and `3`.

Now let’s look at the pattern in the body of the code associated with this arm:
`temp_vec.push()` within `$()*` is generated for each part that matches `$()` in
the pattern zero or more times depending on how many times the pattern matches.
The `$x` is replaced with each expression matched. When we call this macro with
`vec![1, 2, 3];`, the code generated that replaces this macro call will be the
following:

```rust,ignore
{
    let mut temp_vec = Vec::new();
    temp_vec.push(1);
    temp_vec.push(2);
    temp_vec.push(3);
    temp_vec
}
```

We’ve defined a macro that can take any number of arguments of any type and can
generate code to create a vector containing the specified elements.

To learn more about how to write macros, consult the online documentation or
other resources, such as [“The Little Book of Rust Macros”][tlborm] started by
Daniel Keep and continued by Lukas Wirth.

### Procedural Macros for Generating Code from Attributes

The second form of macros is the _procedural macro_, which acts more like a
function (and is a type of procedure). Procedural macros accept some code as an
input, operate on that code, and produce some code as an output rather than
matching against patterns and replacing the code with other code as declarative
macros do. The three kinds of procedural macros are custom derive,
attribute-like, and function-like, and all work in a similar fashion.

When creating procedural macros, the definitions must reside in their own crate
with a special crate type. This is for complex technical reasons that we hope to
eliminate in the future. In Listing 20-30, we show how to define a procedural
macro, where `some_attribute` is a placeholder for using a specific macro
variety.

<Listing number="20-30" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="An example of defining a procedural macro">

```rust,ignore
use proc_macro;

#[some_attribute]
pub fn some_name(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
}
```

</Listing>

The function that defines a procedural macro takes a `TokenStream` as an input
and produces a `TokenStream` as an output. The `TokenStream` type is defined by
the `proc_macro` crate that is included with Rust and represents a sequence of
tokens. This is the core of the macro: the source code that the macro is
operating on makes up the input `TokenStream`, and the code the macro produces
is the output `TokenStream`. The function also has an attribute attached to it
that specifies which kind of procedural macro we’re creating. We can have
multiple kinds of procedural macros in the same crate.

Let’s look at the different kinds of procedural macros. We’ll start with a
custom derive macro and then explain the small dissimilarities that make the
other forms different.

### How to Write a Custom `derive` Macro

Let’s create a crate named `hello_macro` that defines a trait named `HelloMacro`
with one associated function named `hello_macro`. Rather than making our users
implement the `HelloMacro` trait for each of their types, we’ll provide a
procedural macro so users can annotate their type with `#[derive(HelloMacro)]`
to get a default implementation of the `hello_macro` function. The default
implementation will print `Hello, Macro! My name is
TypeName!` where `TypeName`
is the name of the type on which this trait has been defined. In other words,
we’ll write a crate that enables another programmer to write code like Listing
20-31 using our crate.

<Listing number="20-31" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="The code a user of our crate will be able to write when using our procedural macro">

```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-31/src/main.rs}}
```

</Listing>

This code will print `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` when we’re done. The
first step is to make a new library crate, like this:

```console
$ cargo new hello_macro --lib
```

Next, we’ll define the `HelloMacro` trait and its associated function:

<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs">

```rust,noplayground
{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs}}
```

</Listing>

We have a trait and its function. At this point, our crate user could implement
the trait to achieve the desired functionality, like so:

```rust,ignore
{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs}}
```

However, they would need to write the implementation block for each type they
wanted to use with `hello_macro`; we want to spare them from having to do this
work.

Additionally, we can’t yet provide the `hello_macro` function with default
implementation that will print the name of the type the trait is implemented on:
Rust doesn’t have reflection capabilities, so it can’t look up the type’s name
at runtime. We need a macro to generate code at compile time.

The next step is to define the procedural macro. At the time of this writing,
procedural macros need to be in their own crate. Eventually, this restriction
might be lifted. The convention for structuring crates and macro crates is as
follows: for a crate named `foo`, a custom derive procedural macro crate is
called `foo_derive`. Let’s start a new crate called `hello_macro_derive` inside
our `hello_macro` project:

```console
$ cargo new hello_macro_derive --lib
```

Our two crates are tightly related, so we create the procedural macro crate
within the directory of our `hello_macro` crate. If we change the trait
definition in `hello_macro`, we’ll have to change the implementation of the
procedural macro in `hello_macro_derive` as well. The two crates will need to be
published separately, and programmers using these crates will need to add both
as dependencies and bring them both into scope. We could instead have the
`hello_macro` crate use `hello_macro_derive` as a dependency and re-export the
procedural macro code. However, the way we’ve structured the project makes it
possible for programmers to use `hello_macro` even if they don’t want the
`derive` functionality.

We need to declare the `hello_macro_derive` crate as a procedural macro crate.
We’ll also need functionality from the `syn` and `quote` crates, as you’ll see
in a moment, so we need to add them as dependencies. Add the following to the
_Cargo.toml_ file for `hello_macro_derive`:

<Listing file-name="hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml">

```toml
{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml:6:12}}
```

</Listing>

To start defining the procedural macro, place the code in Listing 20-32 into
your _src/lib.rs_ file for the `hello_macro_derive` crate. Note that this code
won’t compile until we add a definition for the `impl_hello_macro` function.

<Listing number="20-32" file-name="hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs" caption="Code that most procedural macro crates will require in order to process Rust code">

```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs}}
```

</Listing>

Notice that we’ve split the code into the `hello_macro_derive` function, which
is responsible for parsing the `TokenStream`, and the `impl_hello_macro`
function, which is responsible for transforming the syntax tree: this makes
writing a procedural macro more convenient. The code in the outer function
(`hello_macro_derive` in this case) will be the same for almost every procedural
macro crate you see or create. The code you specify in the body of the inner
function (`impl_hello_macro` in this case) will be different depending on your
procedural macro’s purpose.

We’ve introduced three new crates: `proc_macro`, [`syn`], and [`quote`]. The
`proc_macro` crate comes with Rust, so we didn’t need to add that to the
dependencies in _Cargo.toml_. The `proc_macro` crate is the compiler’s API that
allows us to read and manipulate Rust code from our code.

The `syn` crate parses Rust code from a string into a data structure that we can
perform operations on. The `quote` crate turns `syn` data structures back into
Rust code. These crates make it much simpler to parse any sort of Rust code we
might want to handle: writing a full parser for Rust code is no simple task.

The `hello_macro_derive` function will be called when a user of our library
specifies `#[derive(HelloMacro)]` on a type. This is possible because we’ve
annotated the `hello_macro_derive` function here with `proc_macro_derive` and
specified the name `HelloMacro`, which matches our trait name; this is the
convention most procedural macros follow.

The `hello_macro_derive` function first converts the `input` from a
`TokenStream` to a data structure that we can then interpret and perform
operations on. This is where `syn` comes into play. The `parse` function in
`syn` takes a `TokenStream` and returns a `DeriveInput` struct representing the
parsed Rust code. Listing 20-33 shows the relevant parts of the `DeriveInput`
struct we get from parsing the `struct Pancakes;` string:

<Listing number="20-33" caption="The `DeriveInput` instance we get when parsing the code that has the macro’s attribute in Listing 20-31">

```rust,ignore
DeriveInput {
    // --snip--

    ident: Ident {
        ident: "Pancakes",
        span: #0 bytes(95..103)
    },
    data: Struct(
        DataStruct {
            struct_token: Struct,
            fields: Unit,
            semi_token: Some(
                Semi
            )
        }
    )
}
```

</Listing>

The fields of this struct show that the Rust code we’ve parsed is a unit struct
with the `ident` (identifier, meaning the name) of `Pancakes`. There are more
fields on this struct for describing all sorts of Rust code; check the
[`syn` documentation for `DeriveInput`][syn-docs] for more information.

Soon we’ll define the `impl_hello_macro` function, which is where we’ll build
the new Rust code we want to include. But before we do, note that the output for
our derive macro is also a `TokenStream`. The returned `TokenStream` is added to
the code that our crate users write, so when they compile their crate, they’ll
get the extra functionality that we provide in the modified `TokenStream`.

You might have noticed that we’re calling `unwrap` to cause the
`hello_macro_derive` function to panic if the call to the `syn::parse` function
fails here. It’s necessary for our procedural macro to panic on errors because
`proc_macro_derive` functions must return `TokenStream` rather than `Result` to
conform to the procedural macro API. We’ve simplified this example by using
`unwrap`; in production code, you should provide more specific error messages
about what went wrong by using `panic!` or `expect`.

Now that we have the code to turn the annotated Rust code from a `TokenStream`
into a `DeriveInput` instance, let’s generate the code that implements the
`HelloMacro` trait on the annotated type, as shown in Listing 20-34.

<Listing number="20-34" file-name="hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs" caption="Implementing the `HelloMacro` trait using the parsed Rust code">

```rust,ignore
{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs:here}}
```

</Listing>

We get an `Ident` struct instance containing the name (identifier) of the
annotated type using `ast.ident`. The struct in Listing 20-33 shows that when we
run the `impl_hello_macro` function on the code in Listing 20-31, the `ident` we
get will have the `ident` field with a value of `"Pancakes"`. Thus, the `name`
variable in Listing 20-34 will contain an `Ident` struct instance that, when
printed, will be the string `"Pancakes"`, the name of the struct in Listing
20-31.

The `quote!` macro lets us define the Rust code that we want to return. The
compiler expects something different to the direct result of the `quote!`
macro’s execution, so we need to convert it to a `TokenStream`. We do this by
calling the `into` method, which consumes this intermediate representation and
returns a value of the required `TokenStream` type.

The `quote!` macro also provides some very cool templating mechanics: we can
enter `#name`, and `quote!` will replace it with the value in the variable
`name`. You can even do some repetition similar to the way regular macros work.
Check out [the `quote` crate’s docs][quote-docs] for a thorough introduction.

We want our procedural macro to generate an implementation of our `HelloMacro`
trait for the type the user annotated, which we can get by using `#name`. The
trait implementation has the one function `hello_macro`, whose body contains the
functionality we want to provide: printing `Hello, Macro! My name is` and then
the name of the annotated type.

The `stringify!` macro used here is built into Rust. It takes a Rust expression,
such as `1 + 2`, and at compile time turns the expression into a string literal,
such as `"1 + 2"`. This is different than `format!` or `println!`, macros which
evaluate the expression and then turn the result into a `String`. There is a
possibility that the `#name` input might be an expression to print literally, so
we use `stringify!`. Using `stringify!` also saves an allocation by converting
`#name` to a string literal at compile time.

At this point, `cargo build` should complete successfully in both `hello_macro`
and `hello_macro_derive`. Let’s hook up these crates to the code in Listing
20-31 to see the procedural macro in action! Create a new binary project in your
_projects_ directory using `cargo new pancakes`. We need to add `hello_macro`
and `hello_macro_derive` as dependencies in the `pancakes` crate’s _Cargo.toml_.
If you’re publishing your versions of `hello_macro` and `hello_macro_derive` to
[crates.io](https://crates.io/), they would be regular dependencies; if not, you
can specify them as `path` dependencies as follows:

```toml
{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml:7:9}}
```

Put the code in Listing 20-31 into _src/main.rs_, and run `cargo run`: it should
print `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` The implementation of the
`HelloMacro` trait from the procedural macro was included without the `pancakes`
crate needing to implement it; the `#[derive(HelloMacro)]` added the trait
implementation.

Next, let’s explore how the other kinds of procedural macros differ from custom
derive macros.

### Attribute-like macros

Attribute-like macros are similar to custom derive macros, but instead of
generating code for the `derive` attribute, they allow you to create new
attributes. They’re also more flexible: `derive` only works for structs and
enums; attributes can be applied to other items as well, such as functions.
Here’s an example of using an attribute-like macro: say you have an attribute
named `route` that annotates functions when using a web application framework:

```rust,ignore
#[route(GET, "/")]
fn index() {
```

This `#[route]` attribute would be defined by the framework as a procedural
macro. The signature of the macro definition function would look like this:

```rust,ignore
#[proc_macro_attribute]
pub fn route(attr: TokenStream, item: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
```

Here, we have two parameters of type `TokenStream`. The first is for the
contents of the attribute: the `GET, "/"` part. The second is the body of the
item the attribute is attached to: in this case, `fn index() {}` and the rest of
the function’s body.

Other than that, attribute-like macros work the same way as custom derive
macros: you create a crate with the `proc-macro` crate type and implement a
function that generates the code you want!

### Function-like macros

Function-like macros define macros that look like function calls. Similarly to
`macro_rules!` macros, they’re more flexible than functions; for example, they
can take an unknown number of arguments. However, `macro_rules!` macros can be
defined only using the match-like syntax we discussed in the section
[“Declarative Macros with `macro_rules!` for General
Metaprogramming”][decl]<!-- ignore --> earlier. Function-like macros take a
`TokenStream` parameter and their definition manipulates that `TokenStream`
using Rust code as the other two types of procedural macros do. An example of a
function-like macro is an `sql!` macro that might be called like so:

```rust,ignore
let sql = sql!(SELECT * FROM posts WHERE id=1);
```

This macro would parse the SQL statement inside it and check that it’s
syntactically correct, which is much more complex processing than a
`macro_rules!` macro can do. The `sql!` macro would be defined like this:

```rust,ignore
#[proc_macro]
pub fn sql(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
```

This definition is similar to the custom derive macro’s signature: we receive
the tokens that are inside the parentheses and return the code we wanted to
generate.

## Summary

Whew! Now you have some Rust features in your toolbox that you likely won’t use
often, but you’ll know they’re available in very particular circumstances. We’ve
introduced several complex topics so that when you encounter them in error
message suggestions or in other peoples’ code, you’ll be able to recognize these
concepts and syntax. Use this chapter as a reference to guide you to solutions.

Next, we’ll put everything we’ve discussed throughout the book into practice and
do one more project!

[ref]: ../reference/macros-by-example.html
[tlborm]: https://veykril.github.io/tlborm/
[`syn`]: https://crates.io/crates/syn
[`quote`]: https://crates.io/crates/quote
[syn-docs]: https://docs.rs/syn/2.0/syn/struct.DeriveInput.html
[quote-docs]: https://docs.rs/quote
[decl]: #declarative-macros-with-macro_rules-for-general-metaprogramming