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 # Smart Pointers

 A _pointer_ is a general concept for a variable that contains an address in
 memory. This address refers to, or “points at,” some other data. The most common
 kind of pointer in Rust is a reference, which you learned about in Chapter 4.
 References are indicated by the `&` symbol and borrow the value they point to.
 They don’t have any special capabilities other than referring to data, and have
 no overhead.

 _Smart pointers_, on the other hand, are data structures that act like a pointer
 but also have additional metadata and capabilities. The concept of smart
 pointers isn’t unique to Rust: smart pointers originated in C++ and exist in
 other languages as well. Rust has a variety of smart pointers defined in the
 standard library that provide functionality beyond that provided by references.
 To explore the general concept, we’ll look at a couple of different examples of
 smart pointers, including a _reference counting_ smart pointer type. This
 pointer enables you to allow data to have multiple owners by keeping track of
 the number of owners and, when no owners remain, cleaning up the data.

 Rust, with its concept of ownership and borrowing, has an additional difference
 between references and smart pointers: while references only borrow data, in
 many cases, smart pointers _own_ the data they point to.

 Though we didn’t call them as such at the time, we’ve already encountered a few
 smart pointers in this book, including `String` and `Vec<T>` in Chapter 8. Both
 these types count as smart pointers because they own some memory and allow you
 to manipulate it. They also have metadata and extra capabilities or guarantees.
 `String`, for example, stores its capacity as metadata and has the extra ability
 to ensure its data will always be valid UTF-8.

 Smart pointers are usually implemented using structs. Unlike an ordinary struct,
 smart pointers implement the `Deref` and `Drop` traits. The `Deref` trait allows
 an instance of the smart pointer struct to behave like a reference so you can
 write your code to work with either references or smart pointers. The `Drop`
 trait allows you to customize the code that’s run when an instance of the smart
 pointer goes out of scope. In this chapter, we’ll discuss both traits and
 demonstrate why they’re important to smart pointers.

 Given that the smart pointer pattern is a general design pattern used frequently
 in Rust, this chapter won’t cover every existing smart pointer. Many libraries
 have their own smart pointers, and you can even write your own. We’ll cover the
 most common smart pointers in the standard library:

 * `Box<T>` for allocating values on the heap
 * `Rc<T>`, a reference counting type that enables multiple ownership
 * `Ref<T>` and `RefMut<T>`, accessed through `RefCell<T>`, a type that enforces
   the borrowing rules at runtime instead of compile time

 In addition, we’ll cover the _interior mutability_ pattern where an immutable
 type exposes an API for mutating an interior value. We’ll also discuss
 _reference cycles_: how they can leak memory and how to prevent them.

 Let’s dive in!
	# Smart Pointers

	A _pointer_ is a general concept for a variable that contains an address in
	memory. This address refers to, or “points at,” some other data. The most common
	kind of pointer in Rust is a reference, which you learned about in Chapter 4.
	References are indicated by the `&` symbol and borrow the value they point to.
	They don’t have any special capabilities other than referring to data, and have
	no overhead.

	_Smart pointers_, on the other hand, are data structures that act like a pointer
	but also have additional metadata and capabilities. The concept of smart
	pointers isn’t unique to Rust: smart pointers originated in C++ and exist in
	other languages as well. Rust has a variety of smart pointers defined in the
	standard library that provide functionality beyond that provided by references.
	To explore the general concept, we’ll look at a couple of different examples of
	smart pointers, including a _reference counting_ smart pointer type. This
	pointer enables you to allow data to have multiple owners by keeping track of
	the number of owners and, when no owners remain, cleaning up the data.

	Rust, with its concept of ownership and borrowing, has an additional difference
	between references and smart pointers: while references only borrow data, in
	many cases, smart pointers _own_ the data they point to.

	Though we didn’t call them as such at the time, we’ve already encountered a few
	smart pointers in this book, including `String` and `Vec<T>` in Chapter 8. Both
	these types count as smart pointers because they own some memory and allow you
	to manipulate it. They also have metadata and extra capabilities or guarantees.
	`String`, for example, stores its capacity as metadata and has the extra ability
	to ensure its data will always be valid UTF-8.

	Smart pointers are usually implemented using structs. Unlike an ordinary struct,
	smart pointers implement the `Deref` and `Drop` traits. The `Deref` trait allows
	an instance of the smart pointer struct to behave like a reference so you can
	write your code to work with either references or smart pointers. The `Drop`
	trait allows you to customize the code that’s run when an instance of the smart
	pointer goes out of scope. In this chapter, we’ll discuss both traits and
	demonstrate why they’re important to smart pointers.

	Given that the smart pointer pattern is a general design pattern used frequently
	in Rust, this chapter won’t cover every existing smart pointer. Many libraries
	have their own smart pointers, and you can even write your own. We’ll cover the
	most common smart pointers in the standard library:

	* `Box<T>` for allocating values on the heap
	* `Rc<T>`, a reference counting type that enables multiple ownership
	* `Ref<T>` and `RefMut<T>`, accessed through `RefCell<T>`, a type that enforces
	the borrowing rules at runtime instead of compile time

	In addition, we’ll cover the _interior mutability_ pattern where an immutable
	type exposes an API for mutating an interior value. We’ll also discuss
	_reference cycles_: how they can leak memory and how to prevent them.

	Let’s dive in!