nostarch/chapter14.md

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# More About Cargo and Crates.io

So far, we’ve used only the most basic features of Cargo to build, run, and
test our code, but it can do a lot more. In this chapter, we’ll discuss some of
its other, more advanced features to show you how to do the following:

* Customize your build through release profiles.
* Publish libraries on *https://crates.i**o*.
* Organize large projects with workspaces.
* Install binaries from *https://crates.io*.
* Extend Cargo using custom commands.

Cargo can do even more than the functionality we cover in this chapter, so for
a full explanation of all its features, see its documentation at
*https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo*.

## Customizing Builds with Release Profiles

In Rust, *release profiles* are predefined and customizable profiles with
different configurations that allow a programmer to have more control over
various options for compiling code. Each profile is configured independently of
the others.

Cargo has two main profiles: the `dev` profile Cargo uses when you run `cargo
build`, and the `release` profile Cargo uses when you run `cargo build
--release`. The `dev` profile is defined with good defaults for development,
and the `release` profile has good defaults for release builds.

These profile names might be familiar from the output of your builds:

```
$ cargo build
    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s
$ cargo build --release
    Finished release [optimized] target(s) in 0.0s
```

The `dev` and `release` are these different profiles used by the compiler.

Cargo has default settings for each of the profiles that apply when you haven’t
explicitly added any `[profile.*]` sections in the project’s *Cargo.toml* file.
By adding `[profile.*]` sections for any profile you want to customize, you
override any subset of the default settings. For example, here are the default
values for the `opt-level` setting for the `dev` and `release` profiles:

Filename: Cargo.toml

```
[profile.dev]
opt-level = 0

[profile.release]
opt-level = 3
```

The `opt-level` setting controls the number of optimizations Rust will apply to
your code, with a range of 0 to 3. Applying more optimizations extends
compiling time, so if you’re in development and compiling your code often,
you’ll want fewer optimizations to compile faster even if the resultant code
runs slower. The default `opt-level` for `dev` is therefore `0`. When you’re
ready to release your code, it’s best to spend more time compiling. You’ll only
compile in release mode once, but you’ll run the compiled program many times,
so release mode trades longer compile time for code that runs faster. That is
why the default `opt-level` for the `release` profile is `3`.

You can override a default setting by adding a different value for it in
*Cargo.toml*. For example, if we want to use optimization level 1 in the
development profile, we can add these two lines to our project’s *Cargo.toml*
file:

Filename: Cargo.toml

```
[profile.dev]
opt-level = 1
```

This code overrides the default setting of `0`. Now when we run `cargo build`,
Cargo will use the defaults for the `dev` profile plus our customization to
`opt-level`. Because we set `opt-level` to `1`, Cargo will apply more
optimizations than the default, but not as many as in a release build.

For the full list of configuration options and defaults for each profile, see
Cargo’s documentation at
*https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/profiles.html*.

## Publishing a Crate to Crates.io

We’ve used packages from *https://crates.io* as dependencies of our project,
but you can also share your code with other people by publishing your own
packages. The crate registry at *https://crates.io* distributes the source code
of your packages, so it primarily hosts code that is open source.

Rust and Cargo have features that make your published package easier for people
to find and use. We’ll talk about some of these features next and then explain
how to publish a package.

### Making Useful Documentation Comments

Accurately documenting your packages will help other users know how and when to
use them, so it’s worth investing the time to write documentation. In Chapter
3, we discussed how to comment Rust code using two slashes, `//`. Rust also has
a particular kind of comment for documentation, known conveniently as a
*documentation comment*, that will generate HTML documentation. The HTML
displays the contents of documentation comments for public API items intended
for programmers interested in knowing how to *use* your crate as opposed to how
your crate is *implemented*.

Documentation comments use three slashes, `///`, instead of two and support
Markdown notation for formatting the text. Place documentation comments just
before the item they’re documenting. Listing 14-1 shows documentation comments
for an `add_one` function in a crate named `my_crate`.

Filename: src/lib.rs

```
/// Adds one to the number given.
///
/// # Examples
///
/// ```
/// let arg = 5;
/// let answer = my_crate::add_one(arg);
///
/// assert_eq!(6, answer);
/// ```
pub fn add_one(x: i32) -> i32 {
    x + 1
}
```

Listing 14-1: A documentation comment for a function

Here, we give a description of what the `add_one` function does, start a
section with the heading `Examples`, and then provide code that demonstrates
how to use the `add_one` function. We can generate the HTML documentation from
this documentation comment by running `cargo doc`. This command runs the
`rustdoc` tool distributed with Rust and puts the generated HTML documentation
in the *target/doc* directory.

For convenience, running `cargo doc --open` will build the HTML for your
current crate’s documentation (as well as the documentation for all of your
crate’s dependencies) and open the result in a web browser. Navigate to the
`add_one` function and you’ll see how the text in the documentation comments is
rendered, as shown in Figure 14-1.

Figure 14-1: HTML documentation for the `add_one` function

#### Commonly Used Sections

We used the `# Examples` Markdown heading in Listing 14-1 to create a section
in the HTML with the title “Examples.” Here are some other sections that crate
authors commonly use in their documentation:

* **Panics**: The scenarios in which the function being documented could panic.
Callers of the function who don’t want their programs to panic should make sure
they don’t call the function in these situations.
* **Errors**: If the function returns a `Result`, describing the kinds of
errors that might occur and what conditions might cause those errors to be
returned can be helpful to callers so they can write code to handle the
different kinds of errors in different ways.
* **Safety**: If the function is `unsafe` to call (we discuss unsafety in
Chapter 19), there should be a section explaining why the function is unsafe
and covering the invariants that the function expects callers to uphold.

Most documentation comments don’t need all of these sections, but this is a
good checklist to remind you of the aspects of your code users will be
interested in knowing about.

#### Documentation Comments as Tests

Adding example code blocks in your documentation comments can help demonstrate
how to use your library, and doing so has an additional bonus: running `cargo
test` will run the code examples in your documentation as tests! Nothing is
better than documentation with examples. But nothing is worse than examples
that don’t work because the code has changed since the documentation was
written. If we run `cargo test` with the documentation for the `add_one`
function from Listing 14-1, we will see a section in the test results that
looks like this:

```
   Doc-tests my_crate

running 1 test
test src/lib.rs - add_one (line 5) ... ok

test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0
filtered out; finished in 0.27s
```

Now, if we change either the function or the example so the `assert_eq!` in the
example panics and run `cargo test` again, we’ll see that the doc tests catch
that the example and the code are out of sync with each other!

#### Commenting Contained Items

The doc comment `//!` adds documentation to the item that *contains* the
comments rather than to the items *following* the comments. We typically use
these doc comments inside the crate root file (*src/lib.rs* by convention) or
inside a module to document the crate or the module as a whole.

For example, to add documentation that describes the purpose of the `my_crate`
crate that contains the `add_one` function, we add documentation comments that
start with `//!` to the beginning of the *src/lib.rs* file, as shown in Listing
14-2.

Filename: src/lib.rs

```
//! # My Crate
//!
//! `my_crate` is a collection of utilities to make performing
//! certain calculations more convenient.

/// Adds one to the number given.
--snip--
```

Listing 14-2: Documentation for the `my_crate` crate as a whole

Notice there isn’t any code after the last line that begins with `//!`. Because
we started the comments with `//!` instead of `///`, we’re documenting the item
that contains this comment rather than an item that follows this comment. In
this case, that item is the *src/lib.rs* file, which is the crate root. These
comments describe the entire crate.

When we run `cargo doc --open`, these comments will display on the front page
of the documentation for `my_crate` above the list of public items in the
crate, as shown in Figure 14-2.

Figure 14-2: Rendered documentation for `my_crate`, including the comment
describing the crate as a whole

Documentation comments within items are useful for describing crates and
modules especially. Use them to explain the overall purpose of the container to
help your users understand the crate’s organization.

### Exporting a Convenient Public API with pub use

The structure of your public API is a major consideration when publishing a
crate. People who use your crate are less familiar with the structure than you
are and might have difficulty finding the pieces they want to use if your crate
has a large module hierarchy.

In Chapter 7, we covered how to make items public using the `pub` keyword, and
how to bring items into a scope with the `use` keyword. However, the structure
that makes sense to you while you’re developing a crate might not be very
convenient for your users. You might want to organize your structs in a
hierarchy containing multiple levels, but then people who want to use a type
you’ve defined deep in the hierarchy might have trouble finding out that type
exists. They might also be annoyed at having to enter `use`
`my_crate::`some_module`::`another_module`::`UsefulType`;` rather than `use`
`my_crate::`UsefulType`;`.

The good news is that if the structure *isn’t* convenient for others to use
from another library, you don’t have to rearrange your internal organization:
instead, you can re-export items to make a public structure that’s different
from your private structure by using `pub use`. *Re-exporting* takes a public
item in one location and makes it public in another location, as if it were
defined in the other location instead.

For example, say we made a library named `art` for modeling artistic concepts.
Within this library are two modules: a `kinds` module containing two enums
named `PrimaryColor` and `SecondaryColor` and a `utils` module containing a
function named `mix`, as shown in Listing 14-3.

Filename: src/lib.rs

```
//! # Art
//!
//! A library for modeling artistic concepts.

pub mod kinds {
    /// The primary colors according to the RYB color model.
    pub enum PrimaryColor {
        Red,
        Yellow,
        Blue,
    }

    /// The secondary colors according to the RYB color model.
    pub enum SecondaryColor {
        Orange,
        Green,
        Purple,
    }
}

pub mod utils {
    use crate::kinds::*;

    /// Combines two primary colors in equal amounts to create
    /// a secondary color.
    pub fn mix(
        c1: PrimaryColor,
        c2: PrimaryColor,
    ) -> SecondaryColor {
        --snip--
    }
}
```

Listing 14-3: An `art` library with items organized into `kinds` and `utils`
modules

Figure 14-3 shows what the front page of the documentation for this crate
generated by `cargo doc` would look like.

Figure 14-3: Front page of the documentation for `art` that lists the `kinds`
and `utils` modules

Note that the `PrimaryColor` and `SecondaryColor` types aren’t listed on the
front page, nor is the `mix` function. We have to click `kinds` and `utils` to
see them.

Another crate that depends on this library would need `use` statements that
bring the items from `art` into scope, specifying the module structure that’s
currently defined. Listing 14-4 shows an example of a crate that uses the
`PrimaryColor` and `mix` items from the `art` crate.

Filename: src/main.rs

```
use art::kinds::PrimaryColor;
use art::utils::mix;

fn main() {
    let red = PrimaryColor::Red;
    let yellow = PrimaryColor::Yellow;
    mix(red, yellow);
}
```

Listing 14-4: A crate using the `art` crate’s items with its internal structure
exported

The author of the code in Listing 14-4, which uses the `art` crate, had to
figure out that `PrimaryColor` is in the `kinds` module and `mix` is in the
`utils` module. The module structure of the `art` crate is more relevant to
developers working on the `art` crate than to those using it. The internal
structure doesn’t contain any useful information for someone trying to
understand how to use the `art` crate, but rather causes confusion because
developers who use it have to figure out where to look, and must specify the
module names in the `use` statements.

To remove the internal organization from the public API, we can modify the
`art` crate code in Listing 14-3 to add `pub use` statements to re-export the
items at the top level, as shown in Listing 14-5.

Filename: src/lib.rs

```
//! # Art
//!
//! A library for modeling artistic concepts.

pub use self::kinds::PrimaryColor;
pub use self::kinds::SecondaryColor;
pub use self::utils::mix;

pub mod kinds {
    --snip--
}

pub mod utils {
    --snip--
}
```

Listing 14-5: Adding `pub use` statements to re-export items

The API documentation that `cargo doc` generates for this crate will now list
and link re-exports on the front page, as shown in Figure 14-4, making the
`PrimaryColor` and `SecondaryColor` types and the `mix` function easier to find.

Figure 14-4: The front page of the documentation for `art` that lists the
re-exports

The `art` crate users can still see and use the internal structure from Listing
14-3 as demonstrated in Listing 14-4, or they can use the more convenient
structure in Listing 14-5, as shown in Listing 14-6.

Filename: src/main.rs

```
use art::mix;
use art::PrimaryColor;

fn main() {
    --snip--
}
```

Listing 14-6: A program using the re-exported items from the `art` crate

In cases where there are many nested modules, re-exporting the types at the top
level with `pub use` can make a significant difference in the experience of
people who use the crate. Another common use of `pub use` is to re-export
definitions of a dependency in the current crate to make that crate’s
definitions part of your crate’s public API.

Creating a useful public API structure is more of an art than a science, and
you can iterate to find the API that works best for your users. Choosing `pub
use` gives you flexibility in how you structure your crate internally and
decouples that internal structure from what you present to your users. Look at
some of the code of crates you’ve installed to see if their internal structure
differs from their public API.

### Setting Up a Crates.io Account

Before you can publish any crates, you need to create an account on
*https://crates.io* and get an API token. To do so, visit the home page at
*https://crates.io* and log in via a GitHub account. (The GitHub account is
currently a requirement, but the site might support other ways of creating an
account in the future.) Once you’re logged in, visit your account settings at
*https://crates.io/me* and retrieve your API key. Then run the `cargo login`
command with your API key, like this:

```
$ cargo login abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz012345
```

This command will inform Cargo of your API token and store it locally in
*~/.cargo/credentials*. Note that this token is a *secret*: do not share it
with anyone else. If you do share it with anyone for any reason, you should
revoke it and generate a new token on *https://crates.io*.

### Adding Metadata to a New Crate

Let’s say you have a crate you want to publish. Before publishing, you’ll need
to add some metadata in the `[package]` section of the crate’s *Cargo.toml*
file.

Your crate will need a unique name. While you’re working on a crate locally,
you can name a crate whatever you’d like. However, crate names on
*https://crates.io* are allocated on a first-come, first-served basis. Once a
crate name is taken, no one else can publish a crate with that name. Before
attempting to publish a crate, search for the name you want to use. If the name
has been used, you will need to find another name and edit the `name` field in
the *Cargo.toml* file under the `[package]` section to use the new name for
publishing, like so:

Filename: Cargo.toml

```
[package]
name = "guessing_game"
```

Even if you’ve chosen a unique name, when you run `cargo publish` to publish
the crate at this point, you’ll get a warning and then an error:

```
$ cargo publish
    Updating crates.io index
warning: manifest has no description, license, license-file, documentation,
homepage or repository.
See https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html#package-metadata
for more info.
--snip--
error: failed to publish to registry at https://crates.io

Caused by:
  the remote server responded with an error: missing or empty metadata fields:
description, license. Please see https://doc.rust-
lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html for how to upload metadata
```

This results in an error because you’re missing some crucial information: a
description and license are required so people will know what your crate does
and under what terms they can use it. In *Cargo.toml*, add a description that’s
just a sentence or two, because it will appear with your crate in search
results. For the `license` field, you need to give a *license identifier
value*. The Linux Foundation’s Software Package Data Exchange (SPDX) at
*http://spdx.org/licenses* lists the identifiers you can use for this value.
For example, to specify that you’ve licensed your crate using the MIT License,
add the `MIT` identifier:

Filename: Cargo.toml

```
[package]
name = "guessing_game"
license = "MIT"
```

If you want to use a license that doesn’t appear in the SPDX, you need to place
the text of that license in a file, include the file in your project, and then
use `license-file` to specify the name of that file instead of using the
`license` key.

Guidance on which license is appropriate for your project is beyond the scope
of this book. Many people in the Rust community license their projects in the
same way as Rust by using a dual license of `MIT OR Apache-2.0`. This practice
demonstrates that you can also specify multiple license identifiers separated
by `OR` to have multiple licenses for your project.

With a unique name, the version, your description, and a license added, the
*Cargo.toml* file for a project that is ready to publish might look like this:

Filename: Cargo.toml

```
[package]
name = "guessing_game"
version = "0.1.0"
edition = "2021"
description = "A fun game where you guess what number the
computer has chosen."
license = "MIT OR Apache-2.0"

[dependencies]
```

Cargo’s documentation at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo* describes other
metadata you can specify to ensure that others can discover and use your crate
more easily.

### Publishing to Crates.io

Now that you’ve created an account, saved your API token, chosen a name for
your crate, and specified the required metadata, you’re ready to publish!
Publishing a crate uploads a specific version to *https://crates.io* for others
to use.

Be careful, because a publish is *permanent*. The version can never be
overwritten, and the code cannot be deleted. One major goal of Crates.io is to
act as a permanent archive of code so that builds of all projects that depend
on crates from *https://crates.io* will continue to work. Allowing version
deletions would make fulfilling that goal impossible. However, there is no
limit to the number of crate versions you can publish.

Run the `cargo publish` command again. It should succeed now:

```
$ cargo publish
    Updating crates.io index
   Packaging guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game)
   Verifying guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game)
   Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0
(file:///projects/guessing_game/target/package/guessing_game-0.1.0)
    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.19s
   Uploading guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game)
```

Congratulations! You’ve now shared your code with the Rust community, and
anyone can easily add your crate as a dependency of their project.

### Publishing a New Version of an Existing Crate

When you’ve made changes to your crate and are ready to release a new version,
you change the `version` value specified in your *Cargo.toml* file and
republish. Use the Semantic Versioning rules at *http://semver.org* to decide
what an appropriate next version number is, based on the kinds of changes
you’ve made. Then run `cargo publish` to upload the new version.

### Deprecating Versions from Crates.io with cargo yank

Although you can’t remove previous versions of a crate, you can prevent any
future projects from adding them as a new dependency. This is useful when a
crate version is broken for one reason or another. In such situations, Cargo
supports yanking a crate version.

*Yanking* a version prevents new projects from depending on that version while
allowing all existing projects that depend on it to continue. Essentially, a
yank means that all projects with a *Cargo.lock* will not break, and any future
*Cargo.lock* files generated will not use the yanked version.

To yank a version of a crate, in the directory of the crate that you’ve
previously published, run `cargo yank` and specify which version you want to
yank. For example, if we’ve published a crate named `guessing_game` version
1.0.1 and we want to yank it, in the project directory for `guessing_game` we’d
run:

```
$ cargo yank --vers 1.0.1
    Updating crates.io index
        Yank guessing_game@1.0.1
```

By adding `--undo` to the command, you can also undo a yank and allow projects
to start depending on a version again:

```
$ cargo yank --vers 1.0.1 --undo
    Updating crates.io index
      Unyank guessing_game@1.0.1
```

A yank *does not* delete any code. It cannot, for example, delete accidentally
uploaded secrets. If that happens, you must reset those secrets immediately.

## Cargo Workspaces

In Chapter 12, we built a package that included a binary crate and a library
crate. As your project develops, you might find that the library crate
continues to get bigger and you want to split your package further into
multiple library crates. Cargo offers a feature called *workspaces* that can
help manage multiple related packages that are developed in tandem.

### Creating a Workspace

A *workspace* is a set of packages that share the same *Cargo.lock* and output
directory. Let’s make a project using a workspace—we’ll use trivial code so we
can concentrate on the structure of the workspace. There are multiple ways to
structure a workspace, so we’ll just show one common way. We’ll have a
workspace containing a binary and two libraries. The binary, which will provide
the main functionality, will depend on the two libraries. One library will
provide an `add_one` function and the other library an `add_two` function.
These three crates will be part of the same workspace. We’ll start by creating
a new directory for the workspace:

```
$ mkdir add
$ cd add
```

Next, in the *add* directory, we create the *Cargo.toml* file that will
configure the entire workspace. This file won’t have a `[package]` section.
Instead, it will start with a `[workspace]` section that will allow us to add
members to the workspace by specifying the path to the package with our binary
crate; in this case, that path is *adder*:

Filename: Cargo.toml

```
[workspace]

members = [
    "adder",
]
```

Next, we’ll create the `adder` binary crate by running `cargo new` within the
*add* directory:

```
$ cargo new adder
     Created binary (application) `adder` package
```

At this point, we can build the workspace by running `cargo build`. The files
in your *add* directory should look like this:

```
├── Cargo.lock
├── Cargo.toml
├── adder
│   ├── Cargo.toml
│   └── src
│       └── main.rs
└── target
```

The workspace has one *target* directory at the top level that the compiled
artifacts will be placed into; the `adder` package doesn’t have its own
*target* directory. Even if we were to run `cargo build` from inside the
*adder* directory, the compiled artifacts would still end up in *add/target*
rather than *add/adder/target*. Cargo structures the *target* directory in a
workspace like this because the crates in a workspace are meant to depend on
each other. If each crate had its own *target* directory, each crate would have
to recompile each of the other crates in the workspace to place the artifacts
in its own *target* directory. By sharing one *target* directory, the crates
can avoid unnecessary rebuilding.

### Creating the Second Package in the Workspace

Next, let’s create another member package in the workspace and call it
`add_one`. Change the top-level *Cargo.toml* to specify the *add_one* path in
the `members` list:

Filename: Cargo.toml

```
[workspace]

members = [
    "adder",
    "add_one",
]
```

Then generate a new library crate named `add_one`:

```
$ cargo new add_one --lib
     Created library `add_one` package
```

Your *add* directory should now have these directories and files:

```
├── Cargo.lock
├── Cargo.toml
├── add_one
│   ├── Cargo.toml
│   └── src
│       └── lib.rs
├── adder
│   ├── Cargo.toml
│   └── src
│       └── main.rs
└── target
```

In the *add_one/src/lib.rs* file, let’s add an `add_one` function:

Filename: add_one/src/lib.rs

```
pub fn add_one(x: i32) -> i32 {
    x + 1
}
```

Now we can have the `adder` package with our binary depend on the `add_one`
package that has our library. First we’ll need to add a path dependency on
`add_one` to *adder/Cargo.toml*:

Filename: adder/Cargo.toml

```
[dependencies]
add_one = { path = "../add_one" }
```

Cargo doesn’t assume that crates in a workspace will depend on each other, so
we need to be explicit about the dependency relationships.

Next, let’s use the `add_one` function (from the `add_one` crate) in the
`adder` crate. Open the *adder/src/main.rs* file and add a `use` line at the
top to bring the new `add_one` library crate into scope. Then change the `main`
function to call the `add_one` function, as in Listing 14-7.

Filename: adder/src/main.rs

```
use add_one;

fn main() {
    let num = 10;
    println!(
        "Hello, world! {num} plus one is {}!",
        add_one::add_one(num)
    );
}
```

Listing 14-7: Using the `add_one` library crate from the `adder` crate

Let’s build the workspace by running `cargo build` in the top-level *add*
directory!

```
$ cargo build
   Compiling add_one v0.1.0 (file:///projects/add/add_one)
   Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/add/adder)
    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.68s
```

To run the binary crate from the *add* directory, we can specify which package
in the workspace we want to run by using the `-p` argument and the package name
with `cargo run`:

```
$ cargo run -p adder
    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s
     Running `target/debug/adder`
Hello, world! 10 plus one is 11!
```

This runs the code in *adder/src/main.rs*, which depends on the `add_one` crate.

#### Depending on an External Package in a Workspace

Notice that the workspace has only one *Cargo.lock* file at the top level,
rather than having a *Cargo.lock* in each crate’s directory. This ensures that
all crates are using the same version of all dependencies. If we add the `rand`
package to the *adder/Cargo.toml* and *add_one/Cargo.toml* files, Cargo will
resolve both of those to one version of `rand` and record that in the one
*Cargo.lock*. Making all crates in the workspace use the same dependencies
means the crates will always be compatible with each other. Let’s add the
`rand` crate to the `[dependencies]` section in the *add_one/Cargo.toml* file
so we can use the `rand` crate in the `add_one` crate:

Filename: add_one/Cargo.toml

```
[dependencies]
rand = "0.8.5"
```

We can now add `use rand;` to the *add_one/src/lib.rs* file, and building the
whole workspace by running `cargo build` in the *add* directory will bring in
and compile the `rand` crate. We will get one warning because we aren’t
referring to the `rand` we brought into scope:

```
$ cargo build
    Updating crates.io index
  Downloaded rand v0.8.5
   --snip--
   Compiling rand v0.8.5
   Compiling add_one v0.1.0 (file:///projects/add/add_one)
   Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/add/adder)
    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 10.18s
```

The top-level *Cargo.lock* now contains information about the dependency of
`add_one` on `rand`. However, even though `rand` is used somewhere in the
workspace, we can’t use it in other crates in the workspace unless we add
`rand` to their *Cargo.toml* files as well. For example, if we add `use rand;`
to the *adder/src/main.rs* file for the `adder` package, we’ll get an error:

```
$ cargo build
   --snip--
   Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/add/adder)
error[E0432]: unresolved import `rand`
 --> adder/src/main.rs:2:5
  |
2 | use rand;
  |     ^^^^ no external crate `rand`
```

To fix this, edit the *Cargo.toml* file for the `adder` package and indicate
that `rand` is a dependency for it as well. Building the `adder` package will
add `rand` to the list of dependencies for `adder` in *Cargo.lock*, but no
additional copies of `rand` will be downloaded. Cargo has ensured that every
crate in every package in the workspace using the `rand` package will be using
the same version, saving us space and ensuring that the crates in the workspace
will be compatible with each other.

#### Adding a Test to a Workspace

For another enhancement, let’s add a test of the `add_one::add_one` function
within the `add_one` crate:

Filename: add_one/src/lib.rs

```
pub fn add_one(x: i32) -> i32 {
    x + 1
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use super::*;

    #[test]
    fn it_works() {
        assert_eq!(3, add_one(2));
    }
}
```

Now run `cargo test` in the top-level *add* directory. Running `cargo test` in
a workspace structured like this one will run the tests for all the crates in
the workspace:

```
$ cargo test
   Compiling add_one v0.1.0 (file:///projects/add/add_one)
   Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/add/adder)
    Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.27s
     Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/add_one-f0253159197f7841)

running 1 test
test tests::it_works ... ok

test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out;
finished in 0.00s

     Running unittests src/main.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-49979ff40686fa8e)

running 0 tests

test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out;
finished in 0.00s

   Doc-tests add_one

running 0 tests

test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out;
finished in 0.00s
```

The first section of the output shows that the `it_works` test in the `add_one`
crate passed. The next section shows that zero tests were found in the `adder`
crate, and then the last section shows zero documentation tests were found in
the `add_one` crate.

We can also run tests for one particular crate in a workspace from the
top-level directory by using the `-p` flag and specifying the name of the crate
we want to test:

```
$ cargo test -p add_one
    Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.00s
     Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/add_one-b3235fea9a156f74)

running 1 test
test tests::it_works ... ok

test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out;
finished in 0.00s

   Doc-tests add_one

running 0 tests

test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out;
finished in 0.00s
```

This output shows `cargo test` only ran the tests for the `add_one` crate and
didn’t run the `adder` crate tests.

If you publish the crates in the workspace to *https://crates.io*, each crate
in the workspace will need to be published separately. Like `cargo test`, we
can publish a particular crate in our workspace by using the `-p` flag and
specifying the name of the crate we want to publish.

For additional practice, add an `add_two` crate to this workspace in a similar
way as the `add_one` crate!

As your project grows, consider using a workspace: it provides
easier-to-understand, smaller, individual components than one big blob of code.
Furthermore, keeping the crates in a workspace can make coordination between
crates easier if they are often changed at the same time.

## Installing Binaries with cargo install

The `cargo install` command allows you to install and use binary crates
locally. This isn’t intended to replace system packages; it’s meant to be a
convenient way for Rust developers to install tools that others have shared on
*https://crates.io*. Note that you can only install packages that have binary
targets. A *binary target* is the runnable program that is created if the crate
has a *src/main.rs* file or another file specified as a binary, as opposed to a
library target that isn’t runnable on its own but is suitable for including
within other programs. Usually, crates have information in the *README* file
about whether a crate is a library, has a binary target, or both.

All binaries installed with `cargo install` are stored in the installation
root’s *bin* folder. If you installed Rust using *rustup.rs* and don’t have any
custom configurations, this directory will be *$HOME/.cargo/bin*. Ensure that
directory is in your `$PATH` to be able to run programs you’ve installed with
`cargo install`.

For example, in Chapter 12 we mentioned that there’s a Rust implementation of
the `grep` tool called `ripgrep` for searching files. To install `ripgrep`, we
can run the following:

```
$ cargo install ripgrep
    Updating crates.io index
  Downloaded ripgrep v13.0.0
  Downloaded 1 crate (243.3 KB) in 0.88s
  Installing ripgrep v13.0.0
   --snip--
   Compiling ripgrep v13.0.0
    Finished release [optimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 3m 10s
  Installing ~/.cargo/bin/rg
   Installed package `ripgrep v13.0.0` (executable `rg`)
```

The second-to-last line of the output shows the location and the name of the
installed binary, which in the case of `ripgrep` is `rg`. As long as the
installation directory is in your `$PATH`, as mentioned previously, you can
then run `rg --help` and start using a faster, Rustier tool for searching files!

## Extending Cargo with Custom Commands

Cargo is designed so you can extend it with new subcommands without having to
modify it. If a binary in your `$PATH` is named `cargo-something`, you can run
it as if it were a Cargo subcommand by running `cargo something`. Custom
commands like this are also listed when you run `cargo --list`. Being able to
use `cargo install` to install extensions and then run them just like the
built-in Cargo tools is a super-convenient benefit of Cargo’s design!

## Summary

Sharing code with Cargo and *https://crates.io* is part of what makes the Rust
ecosystem useful for many different tasks. Rust’s standard library is small and
stable, but crates are easy to share, use, and improve on a timeline different
from that of the language. Don’t be shy about sharing code that’s useful to you
on *https://crates.io*; it’s likely that it will be useful to someone else as
well!